Question and Answer of Physiology

Physiology is the branch of biology that deals with the normal functions of living organisms and their parts.

Physiology

1. What is vitamin? What is the type of vitamins?

These are organic chemical substances that are present in food in mineral amount, which are required for growth, health and life but that does not supply any energy.

Classification of vitamins: It is mainly of 2 types.

-Fat soluble vitamins: (Soluble in fat solvents) 

• Vitamin A
• Vitamin D
• Vitamin E
• Vitamin K

-Water soluble vitamins: (Soluble in water)

Water soluble vitamins include Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) and the vitamin B complex: thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), Vitamin B6, biotin (B7), folic acid (B9), Vitamin B12.

2. What is blood? Write down the composition of blood?

Blood is a liquid connective tissue which contains plasma and cells.

Composition of blood: Blood has 2 main components. 

a. Plasma: 55% in blood. It is yellowish color liquid part of the blood.   

b. Blood cells:  There are 3 types of blood cells in Blood. These are:

(i) Red blood cells (Erythrocytes), 41%

(ii) White blood cells (Leukocytes)

(iii) Platelets (Thrombocytes)

3. What is the cause of anemia? 

• Excessive blood loss due to acute or chronic hemorrhage. 
• Less production of RBC.
• Destruction of RBC before fixed time. 
• Destruction of bone marrow.
• Production of sick RBC.

Anemia may be defined as a reduction of hemoglobin concentration per unit volume of peripheral blood below normal for the age and sex of the patient.

4. What is ESR? What is the factor that increase ESR? 

An erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is a type of blood test that measures how quickly erythrocytes (red blood cells) settle at the bottom of a test tube that contains a blood sample. 

Normal value of ESR:

• Male: 0-10 mm at the end of 1st hour.
• Female: 0-20 mm at the end of 1st hour.

Factors that increase ESR

• Old age
• Female
• Pregnancy
• Anemia
• RBC abnormalities
• Macrocytosis
• Technical factors
• Dilution problem
• Increased TEMP. of specimen
• Tilted ESR tube
• Elevated fibrinogen levels
• Inflammation
• Malignancy

5. What are the functions of the heart?

• Pumping oxygenated blood to the other body parts.
• Pumping hormones and other vital substances to different parts of the body.
• Receiving deoxygenated blood and carrying metabolic waste products from the body and pumping it to the lungs for oxygenation.
• Maintaining blood pressure.
• Circulates OXYGEN and removes Carbon Dioxide.
• Provides cells with NUTRIENTS.
• Removes the waste products of metabolism to the excretory organs for disposal.
• Protects the body against disease and infection.
• Clotting stops bleeding after injury.

6. Write down the blood Circulation through the Heart?

• Deoxygenated blood of the lower parts of our body enters to the right atrium by the inferior vena cava and that blood of the upper parts enters to the right atrium by the superior vena cava.
• Then this blood enters to the right ventricle by the right atrio-ventricular valve. 
• Then it reaches to the lungs by the Pulmonary aorta and artery.  In the lungs this carbon di oxide blood is converted in to Oxygenated blood.
• Then this blood enters to the right ventricle by the right atrio-ventricular valve.
• Then it reaches to the lungs by the Pulmonary aorta and   artery.  In the lungs this carbon di oxide blood is converted in to Oxygenated blood.
• Then this oxygenated blood comes to the left atrium of the heart by the four pulmonary veins.
• This blood comes to the left ventricle by the left atrio-ventricular valve.
• This oxygenated blood comes out from the left ventricle and reaches to the cells of the whole body by the aorta, arteries and arterioles. By the metabolism process carbon di oxide is produced in the cells.
• This deoxygenated blood again comes to the right atrium of the heart by the inferior vena cava and superior vena cava.
• In this way, the blood circulation occurs in our body.

7. What are the causes the hypertension?

The most common causes of hypertension include below:

• Smoking
• Obesity
• Diabetes
• Having a sedentary lifestyle
• Lack of physical activity
• High salt or alcohol intake levels
• Insufficient consumption of calcium
• Potassium
• Deficiency in vitamin D
• Stress
• Chronic kidney disease

8. What are the pulmonary volumes and capacities?

Pulmonary volumes are:

• Tidal volume
• Inspiratory reserve volume
• Expiratory persevere volume
• Residual volume

Pulmonary volumes capacities are:

• Inspiratory capacity--TV+IRV
• Functional residual capacity--ERV+RV
• Vital capacity--TV+IRV+ERV
• Total lung capacity--VC+RV

9. What are the types of digestive juices?

These are the juices that are secreted:

• Mouth - saliva.
• Stomach - pepsin, renin, hydrochloric acid.
• Small intestine - Colipase, bile salts.
• Pancreas - trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, elastase, carboxypeptidase, pancreatic lipase, nucleases, and amylase.
• Liver - Bile acids.

10. Draw a picture of a nephron with label?

Nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. 

There are about 10,00,000 nephrons in each human kidney.

Structure of Nephron: The structure of nephron comprises two major portions:

Renal Corpuscle: The renal corpuscle consists of a glomerulus surrounded by a Bowman’s capsule.

Renal Tubule: The components of the renal tubule are:

• Proximal convoluted tubule 
• Loop of Henle  
• Distal convoluted tubule.
• Collecting tubule.

11. Write down the composition of urine?

12. What are the name of the endocrine glands?

13. Write the symptoms of menopause?

In the months or years leading up to menopause (perimenopause), you might experience these signs and symptoms:

• Irregular periods.
• Vaginal dryness.
• Hot flashes.
• Chills.
• Night sweats.
• Sleep problems.
• Mood changes.
• Weight gain and slowed metabolism.

14. What is spermatogenesis? What are the steps of spermatogenesis?

Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm cell development. Rounded immature sperm cells undergo successive mitotic and meiotic divisions (spermatocytogenesis) and a metamorphic change (spermiogenesis) to produce spermatozoa.

Steps of Spermatogenesis: There are three phases:

• Spermatocytogenesis 
• Spermatidogenesis
• Spermiogenesis.

Step 1: Spermatocytogenesis:

• Mitotic division of a diploid spermatogonium that resides in the basal compartment of the seminiferous tubules, resulting in two diploid intermediate cells called primary spermatocytes.
• Each primary spermatocyte then moves into the adluminal compartment of the seminiferous tubules, duplicates its DNA, and subsequently undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes.

Step 2: Spermatidogenesis:

• The creation of spermatids from secondary spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocytes produced earlier rapidly enter meiosis II and divide to produce haploid spermatids. 
• Meiosis II produces four haploid cells, known as spermatids.

Step 3: Spermiogenesis:

• Spermatids undergo transformation into spermatozoa. 
• Spermiogenesis is the maturation of the spermatids into sperm cells.
• Spermiogenesis is the final  formation and maturation process of the spermatids into sperm cells.

15. Write the classification of nervous system?

16. What is neuron? Write the parts of a neuron with picture?

The neuron is the basic working unit of the brain, a specialized cell designed to transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. Neurons are cells within the nervous system that transmit information to other nerve cells, muscle, or gland cells. Most neurons have a cell body, an axon, and dendrites

17. Write the process of regulation of body temperature?

• Body temperature-balance between heat production and heat loss.
• At rest the liver, heart, brain and endocrine organs account for most heat production.
• During vigorous exercise, heat production from skeletal muscles can increase 30-40 times.
• Normal body temperature is 36.20C (98.20 F) optimal enzyme activity occurs at this temperature.
• Temperature spikes above this range denature proteins and depress neurons.

18. What is metabolism, anabolism and catabolism?

Metabolism-is a characteristic of living thing, sum total of all the reactions going on in our body is called metabolism.

Anabolism-collectively refers to all the processes of chemical reaction that build larger molecules out of smaller molecules or atoms.

Catabolism-is breakdown of any complex substance into simpler once.

 19. Parts of the Eye

• Cornea
• Aquas humor
• Pupil
• Lens
• Vitreous humor
• Retina
• Iris
• Ciliary muscle

20. Mechanism of Vision

Visual function involves a combination of many factors, including:

• The field of view
• Depth perception ( ability to judge distances )
• Acuity ( focusing ability )
• Perception of motion
• Color differentiation

21. Parts of Ear

The ear is the organ of hearing and balance. The parts of the ear include:

External or outer ear, consisting of:

• Pinna or auricle. This is the outside part of the ear.
• External auditory canal or tube. This is the tube that connects the outer ear to the inside or middle ear.
• Tympanic membrane (eardrum). The tympanic membrane divides the external ear from the middle ear.

Middle ear (tympanic cavity), consisting of:

• Ossicles. Three small bones that are connected and transmit the sound waves to the inner ear. The bones are called:

1. Malleus
2. Incus
3. Stapes

• Eustachian tube. A canal that links the middle ear with the back of the nose. The eustachian tube helps to equalize the pressure in the middle ear. Equalized pressure is needed for the proper transfer of sound waves. The eustachian tube is lined with mucous, just like the inside of the nose and throat.

Inner ear, consisting of:

• Cochlea. This contains the nerves for hearing.
• Vestibule. This contains receptors for balance.
• Semicircular canals. This contains receptors for balance.

22. Mechanism of Hearing

• Any vibrating object causes waves of compression and rarefaction and is capable of producing sound
• Sound travels faster in liquids and solids then in air (roughly 344 m per second)
• When sound energy has to pass from air to liquid, most of it is reflected because of the impedance offered by the liquid.

Mechanism of Hearing can be broadly classified into:

• Mechanical conduction of sound
• Transduction of mechanical energy into electrical impulses
• Conduction of electrical impulses to brain

23. What are the Primary taste sensation

24. What are the type of Taste buds

Depending on their shape papillae are classified into four groups:

25. Causes of taste  blindness:

• Upper respiratory infections, such as the common cold.
• Sinus infections.
• Middle ear infections.
• Poor oral hygiene and dental problems, such as gingivitis.
• Exposure to some chemicals, such as insecticides.
• Surgeries on the mouth, throat, nose, or ear.
• Head injuries.

26. What are the smell disorders?

• Hyposmia -- is a reduced ability to detect odors.
• Anosmia -- is the complete inability to detect odors. In rare cases, someone may be born without a sense of smell, a condition called congenital anosmia.
• Dysosmia -- A distortion of the sense of smell. 

27. Layers of skin

There are 3 layers of skin-

⏯-Epidermis

• Squamous cells
• Basal cells
• Melanocytes

⏯-Dermis

• Blood vessels
• Lymph vessels
• Hair follicles
• Sweat glands
• Collagen bundles
• Fibroblasts
• Nerves
• Sebaceous glands

⏯-Hypodermis 

28. Functions of Skin

29. Layers of hair

Hair is a filamentous biomaterial that grows from follicles found in the dermis.

30. Functions of hair

• Protection
• Heat retention
• Prevents the loss of conducted heat from the scalp to the surrounding air
• Facial expression
• Sensory reception
• Visual identification
• Chemical signal dispersal

31. Parts of the nail

32. Nail disorders

33. Functions of skeleton system

34. Skeletal Disorders

• Osteoporosis-অস্টিওপোরোসিস
• Osteomyelitis-অস্টিওমিলাইটিস
• Osteopenia-অস্টিওপেনিয়া
• Arthritis
• Rickets/ Osteomalacia-রিকেট / অস্টিওমালাসিয়া
• Gout-গাউট
• Osteosarcoma-অস্টিওসারকোমা

35. Classification of muscles

Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons, and they produce all the movements of body parts in relation to each other.

Smooth muscle, found in the walls of the hollow internal organs such as blood  vessels, the gastrointestinal  tract , bladder , and uterus , is under control of the autonomic nervous system.

Cardiac muscle is one of three types of vertebrate muscles, with the other two being skeletal and smooth muscles. It is involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the walls of the heart.

36. Functions of muscles

• Movement
• Maintenance of posture
• Respiration
• Heat generation
• Pumping blood
• Digestion
• Urination
• Childbirth
• Vision

37. What are the Muscular Disorders

• Muscular dystrophy
• Myalgia
• Myopathy
• Myositis
• Muscle paralysis
• Spasm or cramp

38. What are the common body fluids

Body fluids are liquids originating from inside the bodies of living humans. They include fluids that are excreted or secreted from the body.

39. What are the fluid compositions

40. Functions of body fluids

41. What are the part of Immune system?

The main parts of the immune system are:

• White blood cells
• Antibodies
• Complement system
• Lymphatic system
• Spleen
• Bone marrow
• Thymus.

41. What is Immunity? Classification of Immunity?

Immunity is described as ability of the body to recognize, neutralize, or destroy harmful foreign substances in our body.

42. What is antigens? What are the type of antigen?

• Any substance when introduced into the body stimulate the production of antibody and react with the specific antibody and antigen receptors present on lymphocytes are called antigen.

Classification of antigen

Depending on origin three types-

1. Exogenous antigens-entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation, ingestion or injection (usually not virus)
2. Endogenous antigens-generated within normal cells (viral or intracellular bacterial infection)
3. Autoantigens (self protein or complex of proteins (and sometimes self DNA or RNA))

43. What is antibody? What are the type of antibody?

• Antibody is a large protein, constitiutes y-gloublin produced by plasma cells
• It is used by the immune system to identify and nutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses
• Antibodies are also celled immunogloublins
• The antibody recognizes a unique molecule of the harmful agent called ANTIGEN, via the variable region

44. What are the type of immune disorders?

Three common autoimmune diseases are:

• Type 1 diabetes. The immune system attacks the cells in the pancreas that make insulin.
• Rheumatoid arthritis. This type of arthritis causes swelling and deformities of the joints.
• Lupus. This disease that attacks body tissues, including the lungs, kidneys, and skin.

45. What are the type of Immunodeficiency disorders?

There are two types of immunodeficiency disorders:

Primary: These disorders are usually present at birth and are genetic disorders that are usually hereditary. They typically become evident during infancy or childhood. However, some primary immunodeficiency disorders (such as common variable immunodeficiency) are not recognized until adulthood. There are more than 100 primary immunodeficiency disorders. All are relatively rare.

Secondary: These disorders generally develop later in life and often result from use of certain drugs or from another disorder, such as diabetes or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. They are more common than primary immunodeficiency disorders.

46. What is inflammation? Write down the 5 cardinal signs of inflammation.

Inflammation is a process by which your body's white blood cells and the things they make protect you from infection from outside invaders, such as bacteria and viruses.

There are five symptoms that may be signs of an acute inflammation:

1. Redness
2. Heat
3. Swelling
4. Pain
5. Loss of function

47. What is Phagocytosis? Write down of Phagocytosis stage.

Phagocytosis, process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles. The phagocyte may be a free-living one-celled organism, such as an amoeba, or one of the body cells, such as a white blood cell.

Stages of phagocytosis:

1. Chemotaxis and adherence of microbeto phagocyte.
2. Ingestion of microbe by phagocyte.
3. Formation of phagosome.
4. Fusion of the phagosome with a lysosome to form a phagolysosome.
5. Digestion of ingested microbe by enzymes.
6. Formation of residual body containing indigestible material.
7. Discharge of waste materials. 

48. What is autoimmune disease? Write down some autoimmune disease name.

An autoimmune disease is a condition in which your immune system mistakenly attacks your body. The immune system normally guards against germs like bacteria and viruses. When it senses these foreign invaders, it sends out an army of fighter cells to attack them.

1. Type 1 diabetes
2. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)
3. Psoriasis/psoriatic arthritis
4. Multiple sclerosis
5. Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
6. Inflammatory bowel disease
7. Addison’s disease
8. Graves’ disease
9. Sjogren’s syndrome
10. Hashimoto’s thyroiditis
11. Myasthenia gravis
12. Autoimmune vasculitis
13. Pernicious anemia
14. Celiac disease

49. Part of the lymphatic system.

• Lymph
• Lymph vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Bone marrow
• Thymus
• Spleen
• Tonsils

50. Function of the lymphatic system.

• Lymph carries protein and large particulate matter away from the tissue space.
• End products of digestion are absorbed mainly by lymph channels.
• Important role in redistribution of fluid in the body.
• Bacteria, toxins and other foreign bodies are removed from the tissues.
• Maintenance of structural and functional integrity of tissue.
• In immune response of the body.
• Production and maturation of lymphocytes.

51. Write down lymphatic disorders.

• Lymphadenitis
• Cancer
• Anaphylactic shock
• HIV/AIDS
• Hodgkin's disease
• Infectious mononucleosis
• Lymphedema
• Tonsillitis
• Lupus erythematosus
• Scleroderma

52. What is Acid based balance?

Acid-base balance refers to the mechanisms the body uses to keep its fluids close to neutral pH (that is, neither basic nor acidic) so that the body can function normally.

53. What is Electrolyte balance?

Electrolytes are minerals in the body that have an electric charge. They are in blood, urine and body fluids. Maintaining the right balance of electrolytes helps your body's blood chemistry, muscle action and other processes. Sodium, calcium, potassium, chlorine, phosphate and magnesium are all electrolytes.

54. What is pH?

• pH is a unit of measure which describes the degree of acidity or alkalinity (basic) of a solution.
• It is measured on a scale of 0 to 14.
• The formal definition of pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity.
• pH = -log [H+]

55. What are the causes of Electrolyte imbalance?

The things that most commonly cause an electrolyte imbalance are:

• vomiting
• diarrhea
• not drinking enough fluids
• not eating enough
• excessive sweating
• certain medications, such as laxatives and diuretics
• eating disorders
• liver or kidney problems
• cancer treatment
• congestive heart failure

56. Importance of Nutrition ?

A healthy diet throughout life promotes healthy pregnancy outcomes, supports normal growth, development and ageing, helps to maintain a healthy body weight, and reduces the risk of chronic disease leading to overall health and well-being.

57. What are the Nutritional deficiency disorder disease?